SEX DIFFERENCES OF THE SKULL
The skull of a man is larger than the skull of a woman on the average; its capacity is greater than that of the female skull by approximately 10 per cent, which is determined by the sex difference in the body dimensions. The surface of the female skull is smoother because the roughnesses at the sites of muscle attachment are less pronounced. The superciliary arches are less prominent, the forehead more vertical, and the vertex flatter. In some cases, however, the sex signs on the skull are so indistinct that the sex of the individual cannot be determined from them, especially since in approximately 20 per cent of cases the capacity of the female skull is no less than the average capacity of the male. The smaller size of the female skull does not signify poorer development of the brain but corresponds to the smaller dimensions and proportions of the female body.
CRANIOLOGY AND CRITICISM OF THE RACIST "THEORY"
The skull is one of the most important objects of anthropological research because of its proximity to such significant organs as the brain, the organs of sense, and the initial parts of the alimentary and respiratory systems. Fossil skulls, moreover, remain intact for long periods of time and serve as sources of information about races long extinct. The human skull generally takes one of three main shapes, although the shape of the individual skull may vary greatly. Skulls are classified according to the cephalic index (the ratio of the maximum diameter to the maximum length of the skull), obtained by the formula (Fig. 76): short or brachycephalic (cephalic index above 80); average or mesocephalic (cephalic index of 79-76); long or dolichocephalic (cephalic index less than 75). Proceeding from the tendentious idea that a long skull indicates a more highly developed brain, reactionary scientists in the capitalist countries advanced a racist "theory" concerning the alleged existence of "highly developed" and "poorly developed" skull types characteristic of different human races. According to this "theory", European skulls were considered the "most highly developed", whereas non-Caucasian skulls were considered the "most poorly developed". Some believed, for example, that the skulls of bushmen (smooth and high with a small, steep forehead) and the skulls of native Australians (with a sharply pronounced relief, slanting forehead, and powerful jaws) were primitive since they resembled the skull of Neanderthal man. Research of unbiased scientists showed, however, that the craniofacial index of the Australian skulls differed significantly from the Neanderthal skull. Furthermore, Neanderthal features themselves, according to some authors, are found among all modern races. An interesting illustration of this is the skull of the American paleontologist Cope, which (as the French anthropologist P. Boule demonstrated) bore striking resemblance to the Neanderthal skull found at la Chapelle-aux-sainte. Just before and during World War II, fascist anthropologists in Hitler's Germany endeavoured to prove that the dolichocephalic skull, supposedly an exclusive feature of the Nordic (North) race (which the anthropologists erroneously called the Aryan race), was a biological indication of the racial superiority of the Germans. This assumed superiority allegedly gave them the right to conquer other nations and gain world supremacy. To solve the question of the significance of racial characteristics, however, it is necessary to differentiate the concept of "race" from that of "nation". Race, a natural, historical category, can be defined as the aggregate of inherited morphological traits common to a group of people living on a definite territory. Although all of modern humanity is currently at the same stage of development, different races develop throughout history as the result of the settlement patterns of individual groups. Different standards of living, that is, varying material conditions, also played an important role in the development of different races. Increasing contact among various groups, however, leads to mingling of the races and effacement of sharp racial distinctions. Therefore, there is no scientific substantiations for distinguishing "higher" and "lower" races. The concept of race also differs from such special subdivisions as "nation", "tribe", and "people". Since nation, for example, is a social category, racial or biological characteristics cannot be used to justify claims of political or social priority. Anatomical facts also provide evidence of this. Research of foreign and Soviet scientists shows, for instance, that an elongated skull is encountered in all modern races. The presence of long and short skulls and Neanderthal features in all races testifies to their similarity and common origin rather than to their differences. The circumference of the head also varies in all races (from 53 to 61 cm). The circumference of some men of genius, Leibnitz and Kant, for example, was very small (55 cm); the circumference of Dante's head measured 54 cm. In the course of human evolution, the capacity of the average skull is steadily increasing from 900 cm3 in the Pithecanthropus to 1500 cm3 in modern man. The different levels of social and cultural development of various modern societies is thus explained by social rather than biological (racial) factors. Flourishing cultures of formerly "backward" people in the USSR and in other countries advancing towards communism testify to this. National liberation movements against imperialism in the colonial and dependent countries also indicate the falseness of anti-scientific racist assertions about "lower" human types, one of the signs of which is allegedly a certain shape, structure, and size of the skull.
CRANIOLOGY AND CRITICISM OF THE RACIST "THEORY"
The skull is one of the most important objects of anthropological research because of its proximity to such significant organs as the brain, the organs of sense, and the initial parts of the alimentary and respiratory systems. Fossil skulls, moreover, remain intact for long periods of time and serve as sources of information about races long extinct. The human skull generally takes one of three main shapes, although the shape of the individual skull may vary greatly. Skulls are classified according to the cephalic index (the ratio of the maximum diameter to the maximum length of the skull), obtained by the formula (Fig. 76): short or brachycephalic (cephalic index above 80); average or mesocephalic (cephalic index of 79-76); long or dolichocephalic (cephalic index less than 75). Proceeding from the tendentious idea that a long skull indicates a more highly developed brain, reactionary scientists in the capitalist countries advanced a racist "theory" concerning the alleged existence of "highly developed" and "poorly developed" skull types characteristic of different human races. According to this "theory", European skulls were considered the "most highly developed", whereas non-Caucasian skulls were considered the "most poorly developed". Some believed, for example, that the skulls of bushmen (smooth and high with a small, steep forehead) and the skulls of native Australians (with a sharply pronounced relief, slanting forehead, and powerful jaws) were primitive since they resembled the skull of Neanderthal man. Research of unbiased scientists showed, however, that the craniofacial index of the Australian skulls differed significantly from the Neanderthal skull. Furthermore, Neanderthal features themselves, according to some authors, are found among all modern races. An interesting illustration of this is the skull of the American paleontologist Cope, which (as the French anthropologist P. Boule demonstrated) bore striking resemblance to the Neanderthal skull found at la Chapelle-aux-sainte. Just before and during World War II, fascist anthropologists in Hitler's Germany endeavoured to prove that the dolichocephalic skull, supposedly an exclusive feature of the Nordic (North) race (which the anthropologists erroneously called the Aryan race), was a biological indication of the racial superiority of the Germans. This assumed superiority allegedly gave them the right to conquer other nations and gain world supremacy. To solve the question of the significance of racial characteristics, however, it is necessary to differentiate the concept of "race" from that of "nation". Race, a natural, historical category, can be defined as the aggregate of inherited morphological traits common to a group of people living on a definite territory. Although all of modern humanity is currently at the same stage of development, different races develop throughout history as the result of the settlement patterns of individual groups. Different standards of living, that is, varying material conditions, also played an important role in the development of different races. Increasing contact among various groups, however, leads to mingling of the races and effacement of sharp racial distinctions. Therefore, there is no scientific substantiations for distinguishing "higher" and "lower" races. The concept of race also differs from such special subdivisions as "nation", "tribe", and "people". Since nation, for example, is a social category, racial or biological characteristics cannot be used to justify claims of political or social priority. Anatomical facts also provide evidence of this. Research of foreign and Soviet scientists shows, for instance, that an elongated skull is encountered in all modern races. The presence of long and short skulls and Neanderthal features in all races testifies to their similarity and common origin rather than to their differences. The circumference of the head also varies in all races (from 53 to 61 cm). The circumference of some men of genius, Leibnitz and Kant, for example, was very small (55 cm); the circumference of Dante's head measured 54 cm. In the course of human evolution, the capacity of the average skull is steadily increasing from 900 cm3 in the Pithecanthropus to 1500 cm3 in modern man. The different levels of social and cultural development of various modern societies is thus explained by social rather than biological (racial) factors. Flourishing cultures of formerly "backward" people in the USSR and in other countries advancing towards communism testify to this. National liberation movements against imperialism in the colonial and dependent countries also indicate the falseness of anti-scientific racist assertions about "lower" human types, one of the signs of which is allegedly a certain shape, structure, and size of the skull.